The interpretation of the Thirteen Towers of Chankillo in the Casma Valley of the Peruvian desert has recently become a subject of debate within the field of Skyscape Archaeology. In their submission for the 2011 Oxford IX Symposium, entitled ‘The Social and Ritual Context of Horizon Astronomical Observations at Chankillo’, Ivan Ghezzi and Clive Ruggles propose that ‘Chankillo’s Thirteen Towers appear to represent a native form of landscape timekeeping’.[1] J McKim Malville on the other hand, argues in ‘Astronomy and Ceremony at Chankillo: An Andean Perspective’, for an interpretation of the site based, not upon celestial alignments, but rather upon cosmological and ritualistic archetypes common throughout the Andean region. [2] Here follows an evaluation of the different research methodologies employed, the different views in contextualizing the data, and the opposing interpretations adopted in the resulting publications.
Description of Chankillo
The Early Horizon (900-200 BC) site of Chankillo is comprised of several structures including a fortified hilltop building, several civic plazas, storage facilities, and a north-south oriented string of thirteen towers.[3] These towers, which form an artificial toothed-horizon bisecting the complex, are embedded with staircases on their northern and southern sides. Ghezzi first visited the site in 2001 to research Chankillo’s functionality as a fortress.[4] Fortified hilltops are well attested throughout the Andes from the Early Horizon through the Late Intermediate Period (1000 -1476 AD).[5] His excavation and artifact analysis led him to conclude that the hilltop building served not as a fortress, but as a religious center- a fortified temple for use in ritual warfare.[6] Chankillo was, in fact, built during the collapse of the earlier religious center of Chavin de Huántar ‘when many population centers were emptied and others were fortified.’[7] Ghezzi also surveyed the area with respect to a ‘hint of astronomical symbolism’- thirteen is the number of lunar cycles in a year.[8] His survey suggested that two structures seemed to be back-sights for observing the motion of the sun against the towers- the fore-sights. These structures he called the Western Observation Building and the Eastern Observation Building. By 2005 he had contacted Clive Ruggles, Professor Emeritus of Archaeoastronomy at the University of Leister, whose own subsequent analysis seemed to support Ghezzi’s results.[9]
Comparison of Research Methodologies
Initial surveys by Ghezzi and Ruggles were performed using hand-held Global Positioning System (GPS) and compass/clinometer devices to determine the locations of the east and west observation points, as well as each corner of the Thirteen Towers.[10] The orientations from the observation points to the individual towers were then measured and recorded in terms of their azimuth, altitude, and astronomical declination to ascertain the validity of solar alignments. A subsequent survey using a Total Station was performed to confirm the consistency of the earlier measurements.[11]
In stark contrast to Ghezzi and Ruggles’ quantitative and processual methodology, Malville’s approach is a more phenomenological and ontological analysis of the site ‘within the context of Central Andean culture.’[12] He draws strong comparisons to similar features found at sites such as Chavin de Huántar, Macho Picchu and elsewhere, arguing that a major theme represented in those constructs involves ‘shamanistic transcendence and transformation involving the tree worlds of the [Andean] cosmos.’[13] It could be argued that the rigorous methodology employed by Ghezzi and Ruggles is comparable to what Anthony Aveni dubbed ‘green archaeoastronomy’ (based upon ‘Old’ and ‘New World’ methodology differences which came to light at the 1986 Oxford Symposium), whereas Malville’s method of anthropological comparison squarely falls within the ‘brown archaeoastronomy’ camp.[14]
The View from the Observation Buildings
Ghezzi and Ruggles draw several conclusions from their measurements of the astronomical alignments. For instance, the sun, viewed from the Western Observation Building at the June solstice, rises significantly to the left of the first tower over a natural ‘cradle-shape’ formed by the slopes of the Cerro Mucho Malo mountain and a more distant hill. They postulate this natural formation may have been perceived as the ‘leftmost tower’ by the ancient Andeans.[15] Malville views this 3.5 degree discrepancy quite differently and counters that the offset of seven solar diameters would have been ‘an unacceptable error if the tower had been built originally to mark June solstice.’[16]
However, Ghezzi and Ruggles note that from the Eastern Observation Building, the June solstice sunset would have aligned with the top of the rightmost tower- Tower 1. Conversely, from the Western Observation Building, the December solstice sunrise would have also aligned with the top of the rightmost tower- in this case Tower 13. They propose this mirroring dual-arrangement embodies ‘the principles of opposition/complementarity that characterize Andean dualism.’[17] Malville also comments on the notion of Andean duality, but his interpretation is of a public/private dichotomy, where public ceremonies took place on the plazas surrounding the towers, while a ‘more select audience’ may have performed rituals from the fortified Temple of the Pillars.[18]
Apart from the many other measurements involving the towers, Ghezzi and Ruggles point out that the natural horizon to the east of Chankillo ‘shows significant features close to the solstitial positions…suggesting that it may have provided a precursor and inspiration for the towers.’[19] Interestingly, Brian Bauer and David Dearborn discuss how solar towers raised on the Picchu mountaintop may have been used by the Inca to view solstitial events from what is now the Plaza de Armas in the Cuzco Valley.[20] Edwin Barnhart suggests the towers of Chankillo appear ‘to mirror the destroyed Inca complex at Cuzco,’ and notes that the site ‘predates Cuzco by at least 1,600 years and may point to a longstanding legacy inherited by the Inca.’[21] Evidence of this ‘longstanding legacy’ may perhaps be found at the even earlier site of Buena Vista, where two structures, the Temple of the Fox and the Temple of the Menacing Disk, orient towards ‘the rising of the Andean Fox constellation before sunrise on December 21, 2200 BC and a fully risen Fox after sunset on March 21.’[22] Both orientations were observed with respect to the distant profile of a natural horizon.
The View from the Top of the Towers
One view that Ghezzi and Ruggles did not record was from atop of the Thirteen Towers. Malville, on the other hand, gives this vantage point particular importance, as his interpretation of the site focuses on the ceremonial ascent and descent of the stairways embedded in the towers, which he contends symbolizes the shamanistic journey through the three levels (underworld, terrestrial, and celestial) of the Andean cosmos.[23] Malville draws comparisons between the Thirteen Towers and huacas, stone mainstays of Andean cosmology often carved with ritualistic and sometimes non-functional stairways- quite possibly regarded as animate entities by the ancient Andeans. He envisions, on June solstice, ceremonial processions of celebrants reaching the tops of the towers as if they were ushnus (platforms for preforming rituals) and making offerings before descending the staircase on the opposite side, where ‘each successive tower carries one from the terrestrial to the solar realm.’[24]
From this place and time, Malville observes, ‘one’s shadow stretches across the land in nearly perfect parallelism with the structures to the east.’[25] This is due to the fact that the largest astronomical feature of Chankillo is the site-axis which aligns to the December solstice sunrise and the June solstice sunset. The axis runs from the fortified temple in a south-eastward direction for over three kilometers and almost all of the structures at Chankillo are built parallel or perpendicular to this axis. In discussing a contemporary Andean culture at Misminay, Gary Urton reports ‘the orientation of the axes for the division of terrestrial space… is shown to closely correspond to the orientation of the axis of the division of celestial space.’[26]
Opposing Interpretations
Malville contends that ‘a solar observatory is not an acknowledged element of Central Andean cosmology.’[27] Furthermore he suggests that ‘if a horizon calendar had been developed using the profiles of the Thirteen Towers, it appears to have been an unintended consequence of the initial design.’[28] Ruggles and Ghezzi concede the even spacing between the towers ‘discounts the idea that they mark even intervals of time throughout the year’ and therefore the towers cannot be interpreted solely as a horizon calendar.[29] Their contextualization of the astronomical alignments in relation to the archaeological evidence, defined as a civic design reflecting political and social differentiation, surficial evidence of ritual banquets, and ceramic artifacts depicting warriors, lead them to envision the rise of a new elite warrior class instituting annual celebrations of pilgrimage, ritual, and feasting.
In a subsequent publication, Ruggles concedes to four points of agreement between the authors: the towers were not exclusively dedicated to astronomical observations; plazas and buildings surrounding the towers were constructed along a solstitial axis; the site has solar-related ritual significance, and there exists the possibility of lunar-related ritual significance as well.[30]
In conclusion, Ghezzi and Ruggles’ technically sound methodology evaluated how the skyscape at Chankillo viewed against the profile of the Thirteen Towers, may have been used by the Andeans as a form of landscape timekeeping. The observed astronomical alignments contextualized within the archaeological evidence led them to propose solstitial ritual celebrations within the framework of the formation of a new elite warrior class. Malville, on the other hand, expressed how the skyscape may have been experienced in relation to the dynamic movement over the staircases of the Thirteen Towers. Within the context of the Andean cosmological notion of animism, Malville suggests the true purpose of the towers may have been for public participation in a form of ‘shamanistic’ transformation rituals.
Bibliography
[1] Ivan Ghezzi and Clive L. N. Ruggles, ‘The Social and Ritual Context of Horizon Astronomical Observations at Chankillo’ Oxford IX” International Symposium on Archaeoastronomy Proceedings IAU Symposium No. 278, ed. Clive L. N. Ruggles, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), p.148
[2] J McKim Malville, ‘Astronomy and Ceremony at Chankillo: An Andean Perspective’ Oxford IX” International Symposium on Archaeoastronomy Proceedings IAU Symposium No. 278, ed. Clive L. N. Ruggles, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), p.159
[3] Ivan Ghezzi and Clive Ruggles, 'Chankillo: A 2300-Year-Old Solar Observatory in Coastal Peru', Science, New Series, Vol. 315, no. 5816 (Mar. 2, 2007) p. 1240
[4] Ron Cowen, 'Peru's Sunny View: Solar Observatory Dates Back 2,300 Years', Science News, Vol. 171, no. 18 (May 5, 2007), p. 280
[5] Margaret Brown Vega, ‘Prehispanic Warfare during the Early Horizon and Late Intermediate Period in the Huaura Valley, Perú’, Current Anthropology, Vol. 50, No. 2 (April 2009) p. 255
[6] Ivan Ghezzi, ‘Religious Warfare at Chankillo’, Andean Archaeology III: North and South, ed. William Harris Isbell and Helaine Silverman (New York: Springer 2006) p. 79
[7] Charles C. Mann, ‘Mystery Towers in Peru Are an Ancient Solar Calendar’, Science, New Series, Vol. 315, No. 5816 (Mar. 2, 2007), p. 1206
[8] Cowen, ‘Peru’s Sunny View’, p.280
[9] Cowen, ‘Peru’s Sunny View’, p.281
[10] Ghezzi and Ruggles, ‘Chankillo: A 2300-Year-Old Solar Observatory ' p. 1241
[11] Ghezzi and Ruggles, ‘Social and Ritual Context of Horizon Astronomical Observations’ p. 149
[12] Malville, ‘Astronomy and Ceremony at Chankillo’, p.154
[13] J. McKim Malville, ‘Cosmology in the Inca Empire: Huaca Sanctuaries, State-Supported Pilgrimage, and Astronomy’, Journal of Cosmology, (2010) Vol 9, p. 3006
[14] Anthony Aveni, ‘Introduction: The Unwritten Record’, Foundations of New World Cultural Astronomy, ed. Anthony Aveni (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2008) p.8
[15] Ghezzi and Ruggles, ‘Social and Ritual Context of Horizon Astronomical Observations’ p. 149
[16] Malville, Astronomy and Ceremony at Chankillo’, p.159
[17] Ghezzi and Ruggles, ‘Social and Ritual Context of Horizon Astronomical Observations’ p. 149
[18] Malville, ‘Astronomy and Ceremony at Chankillo’, pp.160-161
[19] Ghezzi and Ruggles, ‘Social and Ritual Context of Horizon Astronomical Observations’ p. 150
[20] Brian S. Bauer, and David S. P. Dearborn, Astronomy and Empire in the Ancient Andes: The Cultural Origins of Inca Sky Watching, (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1995), pp. 73-74
[21] Edwin Barnhart, ‘Cupisnique to Salinar-Elite Rulers and War, Lecture 6 -Transcript’, The Lost Worlds of South America, (Chantilly: The Teaching Company, 2012)
[22] Robert A. Benfer, Louanna Furbee, and Hugo Ludeña R., 'Ancient South American Cosmology: Four Thousand Years of the Myth of the Fox', Journal of Cosmology, 2011 In Press. <http://journalofcosmology.com/AncientAstronomy120.html>
[23] Malville, ‘Astronomy and Ceremony at Chankillo’, p.156
[24] Malville, ‘Astronomy and Ceremony at Chankillo’, p.159
[25] Malville, ‘Astronomy and Ceremony at Chankillo’, p.158
[26] Gary Urton, At the Crossroads of the Earth and the Sky, (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981), p.195
[27] Malville, ‘Astronomy and Ceremony at Chankillo’, p.159
[28] Malville, ‘Astronomy and Ceremony at Chankillo’, p.159
[29] Ghezzi and Ruggles, ‘Social and Ritual Context of Horizon Astronomical Observations’ p. 151
[30] Clive Ruggles, ‘Pushing back the frontiers or still running around the same circles? “Interpretative archaeoastronomy” thirty years on’, Proceedings IAU Symposium No. 278, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), pp 11-12